Tuesday, January 28, 2020

Original intent of Second amendment Essay Example for Free

Original intent of Second amendment Essay The second Amendment text is very clear to most of us, â€Å"A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed† (Second Amendment to the U. S. Constitution). Is such a text so complex to comprehend? It appears that yes, it is complex. Even a number of those who back it are not fond of the wording of the text, since it supposedly raises misunderstanding. However, the Second Amendment is in fact a well-formulated statement. By this it means that, the wordings of Second Amendment only allow one logical interpretation of the intended meaning, â€Å"the right of individuals to own firearms need to be upheld and respected† (Van Alstyne, 1242). This essay aims at discussing the original intent of the second amendment, to discuss this issue; the paper will start by explaining the founding father’s viewpoint of their intent in writing the second amendment. Then, the paper will explore the meaning of the word â€Å"militia† as it was used in its historical perspective for a clear theoretical understanding. The essay will also review the Miller vs.  US (1939), court case which is related to the subject under discussion, and lastly a brief conclusion will be provided to sum up the essay. The founding fathers’ view of second amendment The founding fathers of America who founded the American nation were well educated, and a lot of them studied Latin, Greek and Hebrew languages which allowed them to study the classic literature from their original scripts. The founding fathers were as well influenced by different great philosophers who lived before them like Aristotle, Plato, Richard hooker, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Adam Smith, Sir William Blackstone and many others (Skousen, 67). Sir, Blackstone an English law scholar and lecturer at the Oxford University was the most influential since he lived at same era with the founding fathers. In his well-known commentaries about England laws, he for instance incorporated the right to firearms as one of the five â€Å"absolute right of Englishmen† (Gottlieb, 72) When the Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson, he recognized ‘unalienable rights’, which included life as well as liberty. These two rights are as well called natural rights, and are believed to have been given to man by nature or God and these rights can not be lawfully denied (Gottlieb, 72). During this period, John Adam in his writing wrote that there exists a law though not written down at anyplace, but which is inherent, a law that comes to human beings without any training or tradition or learning but which is derived and absorbed and adopted from nature. He added that this law had came to man by practice and not theory, and through natural intuition and not by instruction. He concluded that he was referring to the law which stipulates that, if an individual life is endangered by armed robbers or violence or by an enemy, then an individual had a moral obligation to use any method possible to protect himself. Thus, John Adams had a conviction that every person was born as a free individual and with his independence, and such a person had some natural, basic and undeniable rights, and one of the rights was the right to defend one’s life and liberties (Cooper, 25). During the month in which the Declaration of Independence was written, Thomas Jefferson had written a model constitution for the state of Virginia which stipulated that â€Å"no free man shall be denied the use of firearms† (Gollieb, 68). The American founding fathers had personal experienced the pain of being occupied by the British troops and they understood how it felt to be occupied by foreign forces. In addition, they understood the essence of having prepared citizens to challenge the power of a suppressing government or an attacking army. Without the armed citizen, victory and success of Americans in the revolutionary war fought to liberate the country would possibly have not been achievable. In addition, Richard Gardener who was a Director of the National Rifle Association (NRA) explains that during the period of American Revolution, the English law had established a custom of keeping and carrying firearms which went back for nearly 100 years. Thus, it was in this custom of an individual’s right to own and use firearm for personal defense, and also to for defending the country that sparked off the American Revolution when the British army that was occupying America tried to takeover powder stores and disarm the people of Boston, seeking to deny them the ability of protecting their natural rights. After the revolution war and victory to the Americans, the founding fathers were faced with a new challenge; this challenge was establishing a constructive government for the new independent nation. Naturally, the founding fathers utilized their vast knowledge of philosophy and history together with spiritual beliefs, to formulate a government for the people of America which above all would preserve and maintain individual liberties and govern the people through their consent. Among the freedoms which were not to be interfered by the government were speech, religion and press. But, the founding fathers of the nation were also firm in their conviction that firearms were legitimate, valuable and essential component of a free nation. Richard Henry Lee wrote that, to protect and maintain liberty, it was necessary that the entire mass of people always should possess arms and more so, they should be taught particularly when they are young on how to use these arms (Gottlieb, 74). Accordingly, it can be seen that the fathers who founded America were not ashamed in any way about their liking of fire arms. For instance, Thomas Jefferson got a handgun when he was only ten years. Jefferson had a conviction that each boy ought to be given a chance to carry a gun. Below is an extract form one of the letters he sent to his nephew. †¢ A body that is strong makes the mind to be strong. For exercising your body and mind, I recommend a gun, whereas this provides a modest exercise to ones body, it as well offers boldness, activity and autonomous to the mind. Ball games and some other games are extremely violent to the body and they do not provide any character to the mind. Therefore, let your firearm be the usual escort as you work (Gottlieb, 70) During the ratification of the constitution, Van Alstyne (1237) explains that, both sides on the political divide supported the right of citizens to own firearms. John Adams and his cousin Sam Adams on opposing sides of the debate to make the ratification both agreed that, citizens had a right to own and carry firearms. At the Massachusetts conference, Sam opposed any ratification unless if accompanied by a stipulation â€Å"that the said Constitution be never construed o prevent the people of the United States, who are peaceable citizens, from keeping their own arms. † (Gottlieb, 73) On the other hand John Adams, who later became president of America, wrote that firearms being owned by citizens might be used according to a person’s judgment, to defend his country, overthrow an oppressive regime, or defend himself (Gottlieb, 73). Indeed, those opposing the federalist government, like George Mason opposed the ratification of the constitution because it did not contain the Bill of Rights. Mason, who earlier had taken part in the constitution writing left, Philadelphia earlier and refused to endorse the document, since it did not incorporate a particular bill of rights, He reminded the delegates at Virginia that the revolutionary war fought earlier had been started by the attempt of the British to impound the firearms of the patriots of Concord. Thus, Mason liken the British approach of trying o disarm people, as a way to try and enslave them. Gottlieb, 59) However, Alexander Hamilton argued that it was not necessary to include the bill of rights since the individuals were already having those rights and they could not be denied or taken away from them. He added that, if the government which represented the people betrayed its people, then the citizens will not have any option apart from exercising their initial right of defending themselves, he further argued that, this right is important, and should be given to the people by all positive governments. But, supposing the government creates an army to force its will; then such an army will never be strong enough to defeat people ready and willing to defend their won rights. Madison as well was against the bill of rights (Van Alstyne, 1234). However, he gave in because of pressure from the Anti-Federalist (who wanted a fresh constitutional convention) so that he could preserve what had been already achieved regarding the constitution. But, Madison made a promise to propose some amendments to include the Bill of Rights supposing the constitution was ever ratified. As we are aware, the constitution was later ratified and true to his words, Madison fulfilled his earlier promise. Here is an original wording amendment that Madison initially proposed in the House of Representatives in August of 1789 â€Å"A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, being the best security of free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; but no person religiously scrupulous shall be compelled to bear arms†. (Halbrook, 77) But, Halbrook (78) explains that there was a debate afterwards and thus some alterations on the wording of the text were done, for example the mention of religious people was removed. To add on that, Halbrook also explains that since there was a general understanding on the meaning of the word ‘militia’, the expression â€Å"composed of the body of the people,† was removed from the text to make it short and clear (Halbrook, 78). At the time the first congress adopted the Bill of Rights, there was an understanding that the federal government had limited powers over the citizens. Presently a number of people dispute the understanding that the Second Amendment provided each and every citizen the right to own and carry firearms. They argue that the right stated in the Amendment implies a ‘collective right of the nation’ however such a viewpoint ignore the phrase â€Å"the right of the people† a phrase used in the first, then the second and also in the fourth amendments. Moreover, supposing that the collective concept is used on some other amendments which acknowledges natural rights of an individual or on individual rights like speech and religion, then it will mean that the state would as well have power over these rights also! A notion that would shock and outrage the country. In addition, the positioning of the Second Amendment within the Bill of Rights, which is amidst the rights of speech, right to assembly and the right of individuals from unnecessary searches and confiscations clearly indicates that the concept of collective right by the state is incorrect. In deed, Alan Gottlieb, president of The Second Amendment Foundation, asserts that each of founding fathers who debated arms categorically endorsed possession of firearms as a basic individual right (Gottlieb, 76). To explore this observation we shall outline the thoughts of George Washington.

Monday, January 20, 2020

The Life of Christopher Marlowe :: Free Essays Online

The Life of Christopher Marlowe Christopher Marlowe, also known as "Kind Kit" and "The Muses' Darling," is most famously known for being a pioneer in English drama. Introducing blank verse, villain-heroes, and revenge dramas to the stage, Marlowe had a huge influence on other playwrights of that time including William Shakespeare. Marlowe was born in Canterbury in 1564 to John Marlowe, a shoemaker, and Katherine Arthur, a Dover native (Henderson 7). On February 26th that year he was baptized at St. George’s Church in Canterbury (8). During the Elizabethan era, it was important that bright young boys receive proper education. A local philanthropist would usually pay tuition for a boy whose family could not afford it. When Marlowe was accepted into the King’s School, usually for sons of wealthy men, Sir Roger Manwood, a local philanthropist, allegedly paid for his education. When he died, Marlowe wrote a Latin elegy for him ("The Life"). While he was at King’s School, Marlowe studied religious instruction, learned Latin grammar, and Latin and Greek Literature. He was also well studied in ancient and modern history and was encouraged to write Latin poetry and perform plays in Latin and Greek. Upon finishing King’s School, he received a Matthew Parker Scholarship to Corpus Christi College in Cambridge, where he attended from 1580-1587 to further his studies and demonstrate a â€Å"mastery of Latin syntax and grammar.† He received his BA in 1584 to become ‘Dominus’ Marlowe ("The Life"). During the Elizabethan era, many of the best college students were recruited into the Secret Service to protect the Queen and her government. In 1584, after receiving his BA, Marlowe was recruited into the Queen’s Secret Service by Sir Francis Walshingham, England’s Secretary of State. During his time as an agent he gained respect from the Queen and her court, getting recognized as a talented writer. His political insight was â€Å"reflected in his political play about the turmoil in France, The Massacre at Paris† ("The Life"). Marlowe’s most important assignment was uncovering the Babington Plot, aimed at the Queen’s assassination and the assassination of her chief ministers in order to place Mary, Queen of Scots, as England’s Catholic queen. The Life of Christopher Marlowe :: Free Essays Online The Life of Christopher Marlowe Christopher Marlowe, also known as "Kind Kit" and "The Muses' Darling," is most famously known for being a pioneer in English drama. Introducing blank verse, villain-heroes, and revenge dramas to the stage, Marlowe had a huge influence on other playwrights of that time including William Shakespeare. Marlowe was born in Canterbury in 1564 to John Marlowe, a shoemaker, and Katherine Arthur, a Dover native (Henderson 7). On February 26th that year he was baptized at St. George’s Church in Canterbury (8). During the Elizabethan era, it was important that bright young boys receive proper education. A local philanthropist would usually pay tuition for a boy whose family could not afford it. When Marlowe was accepted into the King’s School, usually for sons of wealthy men, Sir Roger Manwood, a local philanthropist, allegedly paid for his education. When he died, Marlowe wrote a Latin elegy for him ("The Life"). While he was at King’s School, Marlowe studied religious instruction, learned Latin grammar, and Latin and Greek Literature. He was also well studied in ancient and modern history and was encouraged to write Latin poetry and perform plays in Latin and Greek. Upon finishing King’s School, he received a Matthew Parker Scholarship to Corpus Christi College in Cambridge, where he attended from 1580-1587 to further his studies and demonstrate a â€Å"mastery of Latin syntax and grammar.† He received his BA in 1584 to become ‘Dominus’ Marlowe ("The Life"). During the Elizabethan era, many of the best college students were recruited into the Secret Service to protect the Queen and her government. In 1584, after receiving his BA, Marlowe was recruited into the Queen’s Secret Service by Sir Francis Walshingham, England’s Secretary of State. During his time as an agent he gained respect from the Queen and her court, getting recognized as a talented writer. His political insight was â€Å"reflected in his political play about the turmoil in France, The Massacre at Paris† ("The Life"). Marlowe’s most important assignment was uncovering the Babington Plot, aimed at the Queen’s assassination and the assassination of her chief ministers in order to place Mary, Queen of Scots, as England’s Catholic queen.

Sunday, January 12, 2020

The Gay Lives of Frederick the Great and William Iii

The Gay Lives of Frederick the Great and William III Frederick the Great of Prussia and William III of the Dutch Republic were two well known great leaders of Europe. They lived decades apart, William from 1650 to 1702, and Frederick from 1712 to 1786, yet had uncannily similar lives, in many aspects. These leaders, because of a somewhat controversial past, have lost many important clues about what their lives were really like. Nonetheless, it is known for sure that both were knowledgeable, great military leaders, champions of justice, and very likely homosexual. One of the few dissimilarities between Frederick and William was the religion they were raised on, which of course was to influence the rest of their lives, particularly in philosophy. At a young age, William was sent to a Calvinist school which emphasized the Calvinist values like modesty and theory like predestination. Although his views were far from conservative, he did tend to dress more simply, and kept a very cool and reserved appearance. William also was born a week after his father's death, leaving him without a strong figure to emulate. If this had any effect on William, it was not apparent, for he firmly believed that he was destined for great things, and his diplomacy became one of his strongest skills. All of William's security in his childhood did not exist for Frederick. Frederick endured a horrible abusive childhood with his tyrannical father. Frederick was very well educated and a lover of all things French- art, philosophy and literature. He was a true dandy- he dressed ostentatiously, and did very fashionable things. He also had a very close male friend- Hans Hermann Von Katte who was about 8 years older. They ran away together, but what exactly their relationship was is unclear. Frederick was careful to destroy any evidence so as to escape his father's wrath. But it didn't work, Frederick's father had the two arrested, and very cruelly had Von Katte beheaded in front of Frederick's eyes. Frederick was bed-ridden and hallucinatory for days. William II also had a close friend, who fortunately did not suffer the same fate. Willem Bentick and William became inseperable at 14. They were so close that when William contracted smallpox, Willem shared his bed, as it was thought that another person with the sick person could draw away some of the disease. Willem and William remained very close, but preceding William's ascension to the throne, it was decided that he would need to be married. He married Mary Stuart, his cousin and daughter of the Duke of York, and very much disliked her. They were polar opposites: Mary wanted affection and was very emotional, while William had his stoic Calvinist mindset. It was sort of the reverse for Frederick: he had a very simple bride, Elizabeth Christine Brunswick, while he was more outgoing, sociable individual. Though the marriage was chosen by Frederick's father, the prince was obedient and understood the importance of the appearance of a strong union. In fact, Frederick had a younger, more openly gay brother who he â€Å"[forced]†¦ to marry ,'to save appearances'† (Dynes 429). Although their marriages were not ideal for either, both William and Frederick stayed with their wives until the end. Frederick coped by buying a palace for his wife; William actually grew to respect his wife and rely on her diplomatic charm. In fact, following her death in 1694 and later his in 1702, William â€Å"was found to be wearing Mary's wedding ring and a lock of her hair close to his heart† (William III). While both kings had decent marriages, Frederick and William were also known for their love of men. William's relationships were less well known, although it was common knowledge that William was interested in men. â€Å"There was a rumour that William was unfaithful to Mary. Her meddling English servants warned her that she would catch him emerging from the bedroom of one of her ladies, Elizabeth Villiers, in the early hours of the morning. There was a scene, with William trying to assure Mary that it was not how it looked†¦ Certainly William was no womaniser and, if anything, his sexual inclinations might have veered more towards young men† (William III) Frederick had many well known lovers. It is said that his father arranged his marriage with Christine to prove Frederick's heterosexuality in addition to producing an heir. Frederick, as a military leader, also was known to have relationships with his friends from the battlefield. Though, to his credit, he never allowed any relationships to interfere with his work or compromise his integrity. Perhaps Frederick's best known and interesting affair was with the famous French poet Voltaire. Frederick's love for French culture encouraged him to reach out to Voltaire, and in 1736 the 24 year old prince sent a letter to the 22 year old, already quite famous philosopher. Thus began their friendship, and they kept a close friendship, or possibly more throughout their lives. Still, there was a conflict of interest between them. Preceding Frederick's coronation, Voltaire â€Å"Never tired of comparing Frederick to Apollo, Alcibiades and the youthful Marcus Aurelius† (Strachey 170). But Voltaire wanted to see a peaceful, united Europe, and once Frederick took the throne of Prussia he seemed only interested in war. Frederick tried to keep Voltaire around, even offering him positions in the court as he still very much valued Voltaire's opinions. Voltaire and Frederick still exchanged writings, Frederick's work still often implying his sexual preferences. It became a problem when Frederick was on his deathbed, and he had Voltaire arrested for possessing his work. Voltaire was freed not to long after and went on to anonymously publish a book about Frederick, The Private Life of the King of Prussia, which was essentially an expose on Frederick's homosexuality. But by the time of Frederick's death, the two men were on very good terms, so much so that Voltaire was the first to coin him as â€Å"Frederick the Great†. William did not have a vengeful lover to put evidence of his same-sex love in the open. He was too diplomatic and calculating to allow for such things to happen. Although his tact left little evidence of his love life, it does tell a great deal about his philosophy about civil rights. Both William and Frederick were champions of civil rights. Furthermore, it would not be ridiculous to think that their homosexuality played a large part in shaping their views, expecially during a time when sodomites were being viciously punished. William was outright stubborn about defending the liberties of his people, which actually earned him the English crown in 1689. While in power, William championed religious freedom and people's rights. He created the Bill of Rights, which was one of the most important documents in English history, perhaps even the world. It forbid unfair taxation, it did not allow the government to infringe upon protest and it demanded a trial with fair, humane punishment for criminals. This document was the predecessor for other rights documents, including that of the United States. Likewise, in Prussia Frederick promoted religious tolerance, reduced harsh penalties and sentences, and even pardoned prisoners that held beliefs that he disagreed with. He encouraged the work of artists, musicians, scientists and philosophers to make Prussia a wholly great nation. Finally, and most well known are the two's military accomplishments. William led the Netherlands in a small united force against the French, and though it ultimately was defeated, it heavily drained French resources while keeping the Netherlands in tact. William also drove out James II of England which, as aforementioned, resulted in him obtaining the English Crown. William loved being on the battlefield, in fact â€Å"Too often he got stuck into the fighting when he should have been in the rear making decisions for the battlefield as a whole† (William III). He kept many of his war companions as his closest confidantes, often drawing criticism for making rulings on their advice and discussions. Whereas William had been more eye-level with his soldiers, Frederick ran his military with an iron rod. The frivolous, fun-loving man who passed so many laws concerning people's safety and rights tolerated nothing in his military. Disobedience and disloyalty meant painful and brutal physical repercussions. But he was able to defeat France and Russia in the Seven Years War, making Prussia a superpower and tripling its armed forces. And like William. Frederick risked his life on the front line, and too often came close to being killed. William III and Frederick II were two men, who, despite their very different upbringings, coincidentally ruled in two very similar styles. Frederick would have known of William III, in fact he had been very inspired by the Bill of Rights William created, but with very little contact they still led uncannily similar lives. It could be attributed to their similar lifestyles: two men that were devoted to their country and their duties, but also had their secrets to hide. Their homosexuality did probably contribute to their similitude, but it was their wit and strong-mindedness that led them both to unconventional and unexpectedly strong leadership. Works Cited Crompton, Louis. â€Å"Frederick the Great. Homosexuality & Civilization. Cambridge, MA: Belknap of Harvard UP, 2003. 505-12. Print. Dynes, Wayne R. , Warren Johansson, William A. Percy, and Stephen Donaldson. â€Å"Frederick II (The Great) of Prussia (1712-1786). † Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. New York: Garland Pub. , 1990. 428-29. Print. Strachey, Lytton. â€Å"Voltaire and Frederick the Great. † Books and Characters, French & English,. New York: H arcourt, Brace and, 1922. 167-99. Print. Waller, Maureen, David Onnekink, and Jason McElligot. â€Å"William III. † BBC – Homepage. BBC. Web. 15 Dec. 2011. .

Saturday, January 4, 2020

Sir Gawain and The Green Knight - 1018 Words

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Prompt #1 â€Å"Sir Gawain, think on this when you go forth among great princes (Gawain poet.373-374.243).† The Medieval Age had a general literary focus about Romance; the stories in that era consisted of imaginative adventures containing faraway places following the chivalric code, similar to fairytales. Writers often use symbolism to give significance to the plot and reference a deeper meaning. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, the poet uses symbolism to represent a whimsical world and to highlight mankind’s faults. The symbolism of the color green varies in mythical meanings. The expression of the color is seen frequently throughout the medieval romance, it is first shown in the exposition of the story.†¦show more content†¦Sir Gawain encounters a game of temptation when he is required to stay in the castle all day with the lord’s lady; she develops an admiration for Gawain and attempts to seduce him. â€Å"He refused it and swore on his knighthood that he could take nothing (Gawain Poet.298.237).† Gawain declines the gifts many times in behalf of the chivalric code however he eventually accepts the mysterious green sash. Sir Gawain demonstrates that he lacks the skills of a quintessential knight due to the fact that he falls into greed and temptation. The Green Knight evaluates Sir Gawain’s loyalty through an arrangement they established in the rising action of the story, which was for Sir Gawain to travel to the Green Chapel on New Year’s Day. â€Å"For y ou kept our pact of the first night with honor and abided by your word and held yourself true to me (Gawain Poet.326-327.242).† Sir Gawain accomplished his goal to attain the quality that every knight should acquire, obedience. Sir Gawain’s loyalty to the Green Knight proves that his belief in Chivalry and his lust for perfection is still intact. The concluding assessment that Sir Gawain faces is in the resolution of the story, the Green Knight reveals that he was the previous lord and the gift of the green sash was yet another test. Sir Gawain realizes how he let greed consume his faith in the chivalric code andShow MoreRelatedSir Gawain And The Green Knight1359 Words   |  6 PagesIn the poem â€Å"Sir Gawain and The Green Knight,† a protagonist emerges depicting an Arthurian knight named Sir Gawain. Sir Gawain, King Arthur’s nephew, takes initiative by accepting the challenge requested by the Green Knight in place of his uncle. He undergoes a perilou s adventure, seeking for the Green Knight to receive the final blow. Although Sir Gawain is not viewed as a hero for his military accomplishments, he is, however, viewed as a heroic figure by the Knights at the Round Table for hisRead MoreSir Gawain And The Green Knight862 Words   |  4 PagesIn Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, by an unknown author referred to as the â€Å"Pearl Poet,† we are introduced to Sir Gawain. Gawain is a knight of the Round Table and he is also the nephew of King Arthur. 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Ultimately, Sir Gawain chooses magic over faith, and by doing so, shows his ironic nature as aRead MoreSir Gawain And The Green Knight906 Words   |  4 Pagesusually the latter. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight we see Sir Bertilak go off to hunt three very specific animals as a game with Sir Gawain. They agree that â€Å"what ever [Bertilak catches] in the wood shall become [Sir Gawain’s], and what ever mishap comes [Sir Gawain’s] way will be given to [Bertilak] in exchange.† (Sir Gawain†¦, ln 1105-1007). In this deal we slowly see Gawain loose his honor as paralleled with Sir B ertilak’s hunt. The first animal that is hunted by the knight is a deer, while thisRead MoreSir Gawain And The Green Knight Essay1521 Words   |  7 PagesFall 16 Donnelly Many years ago, knights were expected to form a certain type of relationship with their king, this relationship was otherwise known as fealty. 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